Terminology

• Oolitic limestone: limestone made mainly of ooids, sand-sized grains with concentric layers
• Fossiliferous limestone: limestone rich in fossil fragments
• Micrite and sparite: carbonate mud and sparry calcite textures
• Chalk, coquina, travertine, marl: soft, shell-rich, freshwater, and clay-bearing varieties
• Density classes: low, medium, and high density in ASTM C568

History and demand

First uses in construction

• By about 200 to 100 BCE, Maya builders used carved limestone for sculpture, lintels, and wall panels
• The Great Pyramid of Giza had an outer cover made entirely of limestone
• The Megalithic Temples of Malta, such as Ħaġar Qim, are built entirely of limestone and are among the oldest freestanding structures in existence
• Medieval European churches and castles were built of limestone
• From the late 19th to the early 20th century limestone was most popular for railway stations, banks, and similar buildings (Wikipedia)

Sourcing

• Mønsted in Denmark is described as the world's largest limestone mine
• Other named sources: Portland and Beer stone in England, Globigerina limestone in Malta, Mount Saint Peter quarries in Belgium and the Netherlands, Kingston in Ontario
• United States: Indiana, especially the Bloomington area, is the source of "Indiana limestone"; Cedar Creek, Virginia, has a quarry
• Limestone was about 46 percent by tonnage of US dimension stone sold or used in 2025 (USGS)

Demand trend

• US dimension stone production was about 2.3 million tons in 2025, with limestone the largest share at 46 percent (USGS)

Grades and types

• Low density (Type I): ASTM C568 density about 110 to 135 lb/ft3
• Medium density (Type II): above 135 and up to about 160 lb/ft3
• High density (Type III): denser than Type II
• By texture: oolitic, fossiliferous, micritic, and crystalline

Properties

Physical

• Density: 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3 (about 94 to 168 lb/ft3), depending on porosity
• Porosity: from about 0.1 percent in dense limestone to about 40 percent in chalk
• Composition: mostly calcite and aragonite (CaCO3); clastic material usually under 5 to 10 percent
• Hardness: Mohs 2 to 4

Mechanical

• Compressive strength: dense limestone up to about 180 MPa (26,100 psi)
• Type II limits (ASTM C568-08a, secondary source): maximum absorption 7.5 percent, minimum density 135 lb/ft3, minimum compressive strength 4,000 psi, minimum modulus of rupture 500 psi

Standards

Material specifications

• ASTM C568: limestone dimension stone, with low, medium, and high density classes (C568/C568M-22 is current)

Test methods

• ASTM C97: absorption and density
• ASTM C170: compressive strength

Uses in buildings

Building elements

• Wall Cladding: veneer, ashlar, and facade panels
• Site Paving: paving, steps, and treads
• Retaining Walls: cut and stacked stone walls

Pros and cons

Pros

• Workable for carving and trim
• Long record in monuments and civic buildings
• Wide range of textures and colors

Cons

• Limestone monuments can erode under acid rain
• Mohs hardness only 2 to 4
• Properties vary between beds, so test the actual stone

Manufacturing and cost

Main manufacturers and suppliers

• Polycor

Trade association: Natural Stone Institute.

Sources

• Wikipedia: Limestone, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone
• USGS: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, stone (dimension), https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-stone-dimension.pdf
• ASTM International: C568 limestone dimension stone, https://store.astm.org/c0568_c0568m-22.html
• iTeh Standards: ASTM C568-08a, https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/astm/39627a43-8d74-4096-84df-b678b6b35e96/astm-c568-08a
• Indiana Limestone Institute: use and overuse of testing in specifying dimension limestone, https://iliai.com/?p=2328
• Image: Indiana Limestone 3610.jpg, Chris Light, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indiana_Limestone_3610.jpg